Development of annual urban heat island in Baghdad under climate change
Abstract
This study investigated the confirmation of climate change by analyzing the long-term records of annual means of temperature taken from synoptic station located at International Baghdad Airport (rural site) available for the period from 1978 to 2019. Furthermore, based on annual temperature data recorded by automatic weather station installed at Mustansiriyah University (urban station), available for the period 2008–2019, the difference between urban and rural temperatures called as urban heat island (UHI) intensity was annually calculated. Statistic descriptive methods including temperature trend, percentile function and R-square were employed to recognize the contribution of UHI in enhancing the local warming climate. The results show that there was a warming trend of 0.052 °C/year for period of 42 years and 0.02 °C/year for recent 12 years at rural station which is lower than 0.13 °C/year observed at urban station. Also the results for annual UHI were found to be always positive intensity which ranges from 0.8 to 2.4 °C with a mean value of 1.78 °C. As a result of high annual UHI intensity, hot day events during 2008–2019 were extracted from daily temperatures exceeding of threshold value of 37.5 °C that dominate in summer months with totally 204 events and with an annual average of 17 days. Finally, under the continuing local warming climate, potential effects caused by UHI and its mitigation strategies are further presented.
Keyword : urban heat island, urban warming, hot days, temperature trend, potential effects and mitigations, Baghdad
How to Cite
Wahab, B. I., Naif, S. S., & Al-Jiboori, M. H. (2022). Development of annual urban heat island in Baghdad under climate change. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 30(1), 179-187. https://doi.org/10.3846/jeelm.2022.16374
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Abo Elata, A. A. A. (2017). Study of vegetation as urban strategy to mitigate urban heat island in mega city Cairo. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 37, 386–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2017.03.004
Abulibdeh, A. (2021). Analysis of urban heat island characteristics and mitigation strategies for eight arid and semiarid gulf region cities. Environmental Earth Sciences, 80, 259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09540-7
Al Buhairi, M. H. (2010). Analysis of monthly, seasonal and annual air temperature variability and trends in Taiz city – Republic of Yemen. Journal of Environment Protection, 1(4), 401–409. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2010.14046
Alcoforado, M., & Andrade, H. (2008). Global warming and the urban heat island. In J. M. Marzluff, E. Shulenberger, W. Endlicher, M. Alberti, G. Bradley, C. Ryan, U. Simon, & C. ZumBrunnen (Eds.), Urban ecology: An international perspective on the interaction between humans and nature (pp. 249–262). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73412-5
Alghamdi, A. S., & Moore, T. W. (2014). Analysis and comparison trend in exterme temperature indices in Riyadh city, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1985–2010. Journal of Climatology, 2014, 560985. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/560985
Al-Jiboori, M. H., Abu Al-Shear, M. J., & Ahmed, M. M. (2020). Impact of land surface changes on air temperatures in Baghdad. Kuwait Journal of Science, 47(4), 118–126.
Bukheet, Y. Ch., Al-Abudi, B. Q., & Mahdi, M. S. (2016). Land cover change detection of Baghdad city using multi-spectral remote sensing imagery. Iraqi Journal of Science (Special issue, part A), 195–214.
Cui, L., & Shi, J. (2012). Urbanization and its environmental effects in Shanghai, China. Urban Climate, 2, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2012.10.008
Dong, W. H., Liu, Z., Zhang, L. J., Tang, Q., Liao, H., & Li, X. (2014). Assessing heat health risk for sustainability in Beijing’s Urban Heat Island. Sustainability, 6(10), 7334–7357. https://doi.org/10.3390/su6107334
Encyclopædia Britannica. (2020). https://www.britannica.com/place/Baghdad
Fang, S., Qi, Y., Han, G., Li, Q. X., & Zhou, G. S. (2016). Changing trends and abrupt features of extreme temperature in mainland China from 1960 to 2010. Atmosphere, 7(2), 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7020022
Founda, D., & Santamouris, M. (2017). Synergies between urban heat island and heat waves in Athens (Greece), during an extremely hot summer (2012). Scientific Reports, 7, 10973. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-11407-6
Garratt, J. R. (1994). The atmospheric boundary layer. Cambridge University Press.
He, B.-J., Ding, L., & Prasad, D. (2020a). Relationships among local-scale urban morphology, urban ventilation, urban heat island and outdoor thermal comfort under sea breeze influence. Sustainable Cities and Society, 60, 102289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102289
He, B.-J., Ding, L., & Prasad, D. (2020b). Wind-sensitive urban planning and design: Precinct ventilation erformance and its potential for local warming mitigation in an open midrise gridiron precinct. Journal of Building Engineering, 29, 101145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.101145
He, B.-J., Wang, J., Liu, H., & Ulpiani, G. (2021). Localized synergies between heat waves and urban heat islands: Implications on human thermal comfort and urban heat management. Environmental Research, 193, 110584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110584
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2019). Global warming of 1.5 °C (Special report, Working group I technical support unit). Geneva, Switzerland.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2007). Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report (Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Geneva, Switzerland.
Landsberg, H. (1981). The urban climate (Vol. 28). Academic Press.
Lee, K., Kim, Y., Sung, H. C., Ryu, J., & Jeon, S. W. (2020). Trend analysis of urban heat island intensity according to urban area change in Asian mega cities. Sustainability, 12(1), 112. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12010112
Li, D., & Bou-Zeid, E. (2013). Synergistic interactions between urban heat islands and heat waves: The impact in cities Is larger than the sum of Its parts. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 52(9), 2051–2064. https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-13-02.1
Montavez, J. P., Rodriguez, A., & Jimenez, J. I. (2000). A study of the Urban Heat Island of Granada. International Journal of Climatology, 20(8), 899–911. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0088(20000630)20:8<899::AID-JOC433>3.0.CO;2-I
Mukhelif, A. T., Al-Ammar, K. H., & Al-Jiboori, M. H. (2016). The seasonal variation of the urban heat island effect and estimating the human-discomfort index at the city of Hillah. Journal of Babylon University/Pure and Applied Sciences, 24(2), 423–434.
Muslih, K. D., & Blazejczyk, K. (2017). The inter-annual variations and the long-term trends of monthly air temperatures in Iraq over the period 1941–2013. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 130, 583–596. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-016-1915-6
Nuruzzaman, M. D. (2015). Urban heat island: Causes, effects and mitigation measures – A review. International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 3(2), 67–73. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijema.20150302.15
Oke, T. R. (1976). The distinction between canopy and boundary‐layer urban heat islands. Atmosphere, 14(4), 268–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/00046973.1976.9648422
Oke, T. R. (1981). Canyon geometry and the nocturnal urban heat island: Comparison of scale model and field observations. Journal of Climatology, 1(3), 237–254. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3370010304
Qi, J., He, B., Wang, M., Zhu, J., & Fu, W. (2019). Do grey infrastructures always elevate urban temperature? No, utilizing grey infrastructures to mitigate urban heat island effects. Sustainable Cities and Society, 46, 101392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.12.020
Ridha, S. (2017). Urban heat island mitigation strategies in an arid climate. In outdoor thermal comfort reachable. Universite Federate, France.
Roth, M. (2007). Review of urban climate research in (sub) tropical regions. International Journal of Climatology, 27(14), 1859–1873. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1591
Santamouris, M. (2020). Recent progress on urban overheating and heat island research. Integrated assessment of the energy, environmnet, vulnerability and health impact. Synergies with the global climate change. Energy and Buildings, 207, 109482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.109482
Shahmohamadi, P., Che-Ani, AI, Maulud, K. N. A., Tawil, N. M., & Abdullah, N. A. G. (2011). The impact of anthropogenic Heat on formation of urban heat island and energy consumption balance. Urban Studies Research, 2011, 497524. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/497524
Stewart, D. (2011). A systematic review and scientific critique of methodology in modern urban heat island litreature. International Journal of Climatology, 31(2), 200–217. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2141
Stull, R. B. (1988). An introduction to boundary layer meteorology. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Tawfeek, Y. Q., Jasim, F. H., & Al-Jiboori, M. H. (2020). A study canopy urban heat island of Baghdad, Iraq. Asian Journal of Atmospheric Environment, 14(3), 280–288. https://doi.org/10.5572/ajae.2020.14.3.280
Wang, J., Meng, Q., Zhang, L., Zhang, Y., He, B., & Zheng, S. (2019). Impacts of the water absorption on the evaporative cooling effect of pervious paving materials. Building and Environment, 151, 187–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.01.033
Wang, X. L., & Feng, Y. (2013). RHtestsV4 user manual. Climate research division, atmospheric science and technology directorate, science and technology branch, Environment Canada. http://etccdi.pacificclimate.org/software.shtml
World Meteorological Organization. (2009). WMO statement on the status of the global climate in 2008. https://www.uncclearn.org/resources/library/wmo-statement-on-the-status-of-the-global-climate-in-2008/
Zahraa, M. H., Al-Jiboori, M. H., & Al-Abassi, H. M. (2020). The effect of the extremes heat waves on mortality rates in Baghdad during the period (2004–2018). Al-Mustansiriya Journal of Science, 31, 15–23.
Zhang, L., Ren, G. Y., Ren, Y. Y., Zhang, A. Y., Chu, Z. Y., & Zhou, Y. Q. (2014). Effect of data homogenization on estimate of temperature trend: a case of Huairou station in Beijing Municipality. Theoritical and Applied Climatology, 115, 365–373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-013-0894-0
Zhou, Y., & Ren, G. (2011). Change in extreme temperature event frequency over mainland China, 1961–2008. Climate Research, 50(2–3), 125–139. https://doi.org/10.3354/cr01053
Abulibdeh, A. (2021). Analysis of urban heat island characteristics and mitigation strategies for eight arid and semiarid gulf region cities. Environmental Earth Sciences, 80, 259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09540-7
Al Buhairi, M. H. (2010). Analysis of monthly, seasonal and annual air temperature variability and trends in Taiz city – Republic of Yemen. Journal of Environment Protection, 1(4), 401–409. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2010.14046
Alcoforado, M., & Andrade, H. (2008). Global warming and the urban heat island. In J. M. Marzluff, E. Shulenberger, W. Endlicher, M. Alberti, G. Bradley, C. Ryan, U. Simon, & C. ZumBrunnen (Eds.), Urban ecology: An international perspective on the interaction between humans and nature (pp. 249–262). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73412-5
Alghamdi, A. S., & Moore, T. W. (2014). Analysis and comparison trend in exterme temperature indices in Riyadh city, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1985–2010. Journal of Climatology, 2014, 560985. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/560985
Al-Jiboori, M. H., Abu Al-Shear, M. J., & Ahmed, M. M. (2020). Impact of land surface changes on air temperatures in Baghdad. Kuwait Journal of Science, 47(4), 118–126.
Bukheet, Y. Ch., Al-Abudi, B. Q., & Mahdi, M. S. (2016). Land cover change detection of Baghdad city using multi-spectral remote sensing imagery. Iraqi Journal of Science (Special issue, part A), 195–214.
Cui, L., & Shi, J. (2012). Urbanization and its environmental effects in Shanghai, China. Urban Climate, 2, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2012.10.008
Dong, W. H., Liu, Z., Zhang, L. J., Tang, Q., Liao, H., & Li, X. (2014). Assessing heat health risk for sustainability in Beijing’s Urban Heat Island. Sustainability, 6(10), 7334–7357. https://doi.org/10.3390/su6107334
Encyclopædia Britannica. (2020). https://www.britannica.com/place/Baghdad
Fang, S., Qi, Y., Han, G., Li, Q. X., & Zhou, G. S. (2016). Changing trends and abrupt features of extreme temperature in mainland China from 1960 to 2010. Atmosphere, 7(2), 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7020022
Founda, D., & Santamouris, M. (2017). Synergies between urban heat island and heat waves in Athens (Greece), during an extremely hot summer (2012). Scientific Reports, 7, 10973. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-11407-6
Garratt, J. R. (1994). The atmospheric boundary layer. Cambridge University Press.
He, B.-J., Ding, L., & Prasad, D. (2020a). Relationships among local-scale urban morphology, urban ventilation, urban heat island and outdoor thermal comfort under sea breeze influence. Sustainable Cities and Society, 60, 102289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102289
He, B.-J., Ding, L., & Prasad, D. (2020b). Wind-sensitive urban planning and design: Precinct ventilation erformance and its potential for local warming mitigation in an open midrise gridiron precinct. Journal of Building Engineering, 29, 101145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.101145
He, B.-J., Wang, J., Liu, H., & Ulpiani, G. (2021). Localized synergies between heat waves and urban heat islands: Implications on human thermal comfort and urban heat management. Environmental Research, 193, 110584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110584
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2019). Global warming of 1.5 °C (Special report, Working group I technical support unit). Geneva, Switzerland.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2007). Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report (Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Geneva, Switzerland.
Landsberg, H. (1981). The urban climate (Vol. 28). Academic Press.
Lee, K., Kim, Y., Sung, H. C., Ryu, J., & Jeon, S. W. (2020). Trend analysis of urban heat island intensity according to urban area change in Asian mega cities. Sustainability, 12(1), 112. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12010112
Li, D., & Bou-Zeid, E. (2013). Synergistic interactions between urban heat islands and heat waves: The impact in cities Is larger than the sum of Its parts. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 52(9), 2051–2064. https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-13-02.1
Montavez, J. P., Rodriguez, A., & Jimenez, J. I. (2000). A study of the Urban Heat Island of Granada. International Journal of Climatology, 20(8), 899–911. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0088(20000630)20:8<899::AID-JOC433>3.0.CO;2-I
Mukhelif, A. T., Al-Ammar, K. H., & Al-Jiboori, M. H. (2016). The seasonal variation of the urban heat island effect and estimating the human-discomfort index at the city of Hillah. Journal of Babylon University/Pure and Applied Sciences, 24(2), 423–434.
Muslih, K. D., & Blazejczyk, K. (2017). The inter-annual variations and the long-term trends of monthly air temperatures in Iraq over the period 1941–2013. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 130, 583–596. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-016-1915-6
Nuruzzaman, M. D. (2015). Urban heat island: Causes, effects and mitigation measures – A review. International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 3(2), 67–73. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijema.20150302.15
Oke, T. R. (1976). The distinction between canopy and boundary‐layer urban heat islands. Atmosphere, 14(4), 268–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/00046973.1976.9648422
Oke, T. R. (1981). Canyon geometry and the nocturnal urban heat island: Comparison of scale model and field observations. Journal of Climatology, 1(3), 237–254. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3370010304
Qi, J., He, B., Wang, M., Zhu, J., & Fu, W. (2019). Do grey infrastructures always elevate urban temperature? No, utilizing grey infrastructures to mitigate urban heat island effects. Sustainable Cities and Society, 46, 101392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.12.020
Ridha, S. (2017). Urban heat island mitigation strategies in an arid climate. In outdoor thermal comfort reachable. Universite Federate, France.
Roth, M. (2007). Review of urban climate research in (sub) tropical regions. International Journal of Climatology, 27(14), 1859–1873. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1591
Santamouris, M. (2020). Recent progress on urban overheating and heat island research. Integrated assessment of the energy, environmnet, vulnerability and health impact. Synergies with the global climate change. Energy and Buildings, 207, 109482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.109482
Shahmohamadi, P., Che-Ani, AI, Maulud, K. N. A., Tawil, N. M., & Abdullah, N. A. G. (2011). The impact of anthropogenic Heat on formation of urban heat island and energy consumption balance. Urban Studies Research, 2011, 497524. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/497524
Stewart, D. (2011). A systematic review and scientific critique of methodology in modern urban heat island litreature. International Journal of Climatology, 31(2), 200–217. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2141
Stull, R. B. (1988). An introduction to boundary layer meteorology. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Tawfeek, Y. Q., Jasim, F. H., & Al-Jiboori, M. H. (2020). A study canopy urban heat island of Baghdad, Iraq. Asian Journal of Atmospheric Environment, 14(3), 280–288. https://doi.org/10.5572/ajae.2020.14.3.280
Wang, J., Meng, Q., Zhang, L., Zhang, Y., He, B., & Zheng, S. (2019). Impacts of the water absorption on the evaporative cooling effect of pervious paving materials. Building and Environment, 151, 187–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.01.033
Wang, X. L., & Feng, Y. (2013). RHtestsV4 user manual. Climate research division, atmospheric science and technology directorate, science and technology branch, Environment Canada. http://etccdi.pacificclimate.org/software.shtml
World Meteorological Organization. (2009). WMO statement on the status of the global climate in 2008. https://www.uncclearn.org/resources/library/wmo-statement-on-the-status-of-the-global-climate-in-2008/
Zahraa, M. H., Al-Jiboori, M. H., & Al-Abassi, H. M. (2020). The effect of the extremes heat waves on mortality rates in Baghdad during the period (2004–2018). Al-Mustansiriya Journal of Science, 31, 15–23.
Zhang, L., Ren, G. Y., Ren, Y. Y., Zhang, A. Y., Chu, Z. Y., & Zhou, Y. Q. (2014). Effect of data homogenization on estimate of temperature trend: a case of Huairou station in Beijing Municipality. Theoritical and Applied Climatology, 115, 365–373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-013-0894-0
Zhou, Y., & Ren, G. (2011). Change in extreme temperature event frequency over mainland China, 1961–2008. Climate Research, 50(2–3), 125–139. https://doi.org/10.3354/cr01053