Diminution of air pollution from NOX and smoke/soot emitted from alcohols/diesel blends in diesel engine and influence of the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
Abstract
In this study, the impact of butanol-diesel blends and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on engine performance, NOX emissions, smoke, and particulate matter (PM) characteristics were experimentally investigated under fuel post-injection condition. The maximum peak of cylinder pressure is achieved under without EGR compared with applied different rates of EGR. Furthermore, the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) increased during the combustion of B20 and B10 by 4.25% and 2.61%, respectively, compared with diesel fuel combustion. Considerable reductions in carbonaceous gas emissions (CO and THC) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) were achieved from combustion of B20 and B10 compared to the diesel fuel for with and without EGR. The NOX emissions decreased with 30% of EGR compared with 15% of EGR for all fuels studied. The results indicated that the addition butanol to the diesel fuel significantly reduced smoke opacity and soot emissions by 31.3% and 35.26%, respectively, compared with diesel. It is observed that an effective reduction of the NOX emissions to be higher during the combustion of B20 compared to the combustion of B10 and diesel for different EGR rates. The results of PM emission showed increase by 16% under 15% of EGR and 28% under 30% of EGR compared to the without EGR for all fuels tested. The number, concentration and size of PM decreased from combustion of B20 and B10 compared with diesel fuel combustion for with and without EGR.
Keyword : alcohols/diesel blends, combustion, gaseous emissions, EGR rates, smoke, soot
How to Cite
Fayad, M. A., Alani, W. K., Dhahad, H. A., & Zheng, J. (2023). Diminution of air pollution from NOX and smoke/soot emitted from alcohols/diesel blends in diesel engine and influence of the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 31(1), 103–112. https://doi.org/10.3846/jeelm.2023.17410
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Abd-Alla, G. H. (2002). Using exhaust gas recirculation in internal combustion engines: A review. Energy Conversion and Management, 43, 1027–1042. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-8904(01)00091-7
Abood, M. K., Fayad, M. A., Al Salihi, H. A., & Salbi, H. A. A. (2021). Effect of ZnO nanoparticles deposition on porous silicon solar cell. Materials Today: Proceedings, 42, 2935–2940.
Asad, U., & Zheng, M. (2014). Exhaust gas recirculation for advanced diesel combustion cycles. Applied Energy, 123, 242–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.02.073
Atmanli, A., & Yilmaz, N. (2018). A comparative analysis of n-butanol/diesel and 1-pentanol/diesel blends in a compression ignition engine. Fuel, 234, 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.07.015
Atmanli, A., & Yilmaz, N. (2020). An experimental assessment on semi-low temperature combustion using waste oil biodiesel/C3-C5 alcohol blends in a diesel engine. Fuel, 260, 116357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116357
Banerjee, R., Roy, S., & Bose, P. K. (2015). Hydrogen-EGR synergy as a promising pathway to meet the PM–NOx–BSFC trade-off contingencies of the diesel engine: A comprehensive review. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 40, 12824–12847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.07.098
Bugosh, G. S., Muncrief, R. L., & Harold, M. P. (2011). Emission analysis of alternative diesel fuels using a compression ignition benchtop engine generator. Energy & Fuels, 25, 4704–4712. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef2009452
Chaichan, M. T. (2018). Performance and emission characteristics of CIE using hydrogen, biodiesel, and massive EGR. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 43, 5415–5435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.09.072
Desantes, J. M., Bermúdez, V., Pastor, J. V., & Fuentes, E. (2006). Investigation of the influence of post-injection on diesel exhaust aerosol particle size distributions. Aerosol Science and Technology, 40, 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/02786820500466583
Dhahad, H. A., & Fayad, M. A. (2020). Role of different antioxidants additions to renewable fuels on NOX emissions reduction and smoke number in direct injection diesel engine. Fuel, 279, 118384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118384
Dhahad, H. A., Fayad, M. A., Chaichan, M. T., Jaber, A. A., & Megaritis, T. (2021). Influence of fuel injection timing strategies on performance, combustion, emissions and particulate matter characteristics fueled with rapeseed methyl ester in modern diesel engine. Fuel, 306, 121589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121589
Ekaab, N. S., Hamza, N. H., & Chaichan, M. T. (2019). Performance and emitted pollutants assessment of diesel engine fuelled with biokerosene. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, 13, 100381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2018.100381
Emiroğlu, A. O., & Şen, M. (2018). Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of various alcohol blends in a single cylinder diesel engine. Fuel, 212, 34–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.10.016
Eveleigh, A., Ladommatos, N., Hellier, P., & Jourdan, A. (2015). An investigation into the conversion of specific carbon atoms in oleic acid and methyl oleate to particulate matter in a diesel engine and tube reactor. Fuel, 153, 604–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.03.037
Fayad, M. A. (2019a). Effect of fuel injection strategy on combustion performance and NOx/smoke trade-off under a range of operating conditions for a heavy-duty DI diesel engine. SN Applied Sciences, 1, 1088. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1083-2
Fayad, M. A. (2019b). Effect of renewable fuel and injection strategies on combustion characteristics and gaseous emissions in diesel engines. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 42, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2019.1587091
Fayad, M. A. (2020). Investigating the influence of oxygenated fuel on particulate size distribution and NOX control in a common-rail diesel engine at rated EGR levels. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 19, 100621.
Fayad, M. A. (2021). Investigation of the impact of injection timing and pressure on emissions characteristics and smoke/soot emissions in diesel engine fuelling with soybean fuel. Journal of Engineering Research, 9, 296–307. https://doi.org/10.36909/jer.v9i2.9683
Fayad, M. A., Al-Salihi, H. A., Dhahad, H. A., Mohammed, F. M., & Al-Ogidi, B. R. (2021). Effect of post-injection and alternative fuels on combustion, emissions and soot nanoparticles characteristics in a common-rail direct injection diesel engine. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2021.1970292
Fayad, M. A., & Dhahad, H. A. (2021). Effects of adding aluminum oxide nanoparticles to butanol-diesel blends on performance, particulate matter, and emission characteristics of diesel engine. Fuel, 286, 119363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119363
Fayad, M. A., Fernández-Rodríguez, D., Herreros, J. M., Lapuerta, M., & Tsolakis, A. (2018). Interactions between aftertreatment systems architecture and combustion of oxygenated fuels for improved low temperature catalysts activity. Fuel, 229, 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.05.002
Fayad, M. A., Tsolakis, A., Fernández-Rodríguez, D., Herreros, J. M., Martos, F. J., & Lapuerta, M. (2017). Manipulating modern diesel engine particulate emission characteristics through butanol fuel blending and fuel injection strategies for efficient diesel oxidation catalysts. Applied Energy, 190, 490–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.12.102
Fayad, M. A., Tsolakis, A., & Martos, F. J. (2020). Influence of alternative fuels on combustion and characteristics of particulate matter morphology in a compression ignition diesel engine. Renewable Energy, 149, 962–969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.10.079
Hajbabaei, M., Johnson, K. C., Okamoto, R., & Durbin, T. D. (2013). Evaluation of the impacts of biofuels on emissions for a California certified diesel fuel from heavy-duty engines (SAE Technical Paper). https://doi.org/10.4271/2013-01-1138
Han, J., Bao, H., & Somers, L. M. T. (2021). Experimental investigation of reactivity controlled compression ignition with n-butanol/n-heptane in a heavy-duty diesel engine. Applied Energy, 282, 116164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116164
Heywood, J. B. (1988). Internal combustion engines fundamentals. McGraw-Hill.
How, H., Masjuki, H., Kalam, M., & Teoh, Y. (2018). Influence of injection timing and split injection strategies on performance, emissions, and combustion characteristics of diesel engine fueled with biodiesel blended fuels. Fuel, 213, 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.10.102
Ito, T., Kitamura, T., Ueda, M., Matsumoto, T., Senda, J., & Fujimoto, H. (2003). Effects of flame lift-off and flame temperature on soot formation in oxygenated fuel sprays (SAE Technical Paper). https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-0073/
Kim, H., & Choi, B. (2010). The effect of biodiesel and bioethanol blended diesel fuel on nanoparticles and exhaust emissions from CRDI diesel engine. Renewable Energy, 35, 157–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2009.04.008
Kim, S. H., Fletcher, R. A., & Zachariah, M. R. (2005). Understanding the difference in oxidative properties between flame and diesel soot nanoparticles: The role of metals. Environmental Science & Technology, 39, 4021–4026. https://doi.org/10.1021/es048828z
Koder, A., Schwanzer, P., Zacherl, F., Rabl, H., Mayer, W., Gruber, G., & Dotzer, T. (2018). Combustion and emission characteristics of a 2.2 L common-rail diesel engine fueled with jatropha oil, soybean oil, and diesel fuel at various EGR-rates. Fuel, 228, 23–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.04.147
Koivisto, E., Ladommatos, N., & Gold, M. (2015). Systematic study of the effect of the hydroxyl functional group in alcohol molecules on compression ignition and exhaust gas emissions. Fuel, 153, 650–663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.03.042
Kondo, M., Kimura, S., Hirano, I., Uraki, Y., & Maeda, R. (2000). Development of noise reduction technologies for a small direct-injection diesel engine. JSAE Review, 21, 327–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0389-4304(00)00052-7
Lapuerta, M., Herreros, J. M., Lyons, L. L., García-Contreras, R., & Briceño, Y. (2008). Effect of the alcohol type used in the production of waste cooking oil biodiesel on diesel performance and emissions. Fuel, 87, 3161–3169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2008.05.013
Li, Z., Song, C., Song, J., Lv, G., Dong, S., & Zhao, Z. (2011). Evolution of the nanostructure, fractal dimension and size of in-cylinder soot during diesel combustion process. Combustion and Flame, 158, 1624–1630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2010.12.006
Line, A. G. (1986). Guide engineering analysis of experimental data (Guideline 2).
Liu, B., Cheng, X., Liu, J., & Pu, H. (2018). Investigation into particle emission characteristics of partially premixed combustion fueled with high n-butanol-diesel ratio blends. Fuel, 223, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.02.196
Liu, H., Bi, X., Huo, M., Lee, C. F., & Yao, M. (2012). Soot emissions of various oxygenated biofuels in conventional diesel combustion and low-temperature combustion conditions. Energy & Fuels, 26, 1900–1911. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef201720d
Lyon, R. K., & Cole, J. A. (1990). A reexamination of the RapreNOx process. Combustion and Flame, 82, 435–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-2180(90)90013-H
Menkiel, B., Donkerbroek, A., Uitz, R., Cracknell, R., & Ganippa, L. (2012). Measurement of in-cylinder soot particles and their distribution in an optical HSDI diesel engine using time resolved laser induced incandescence (TR-LII). Combustion and Flame, 159, 2985–2998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2012.03.008
Nabi, N., Shahadat, M. Z., Rahman, S., & Beg, R. A. (2004). Behavior of diesel combustion and exhaust emission with neat diesel fuel and diesel-biodiesel blends [Conference presentation]. Powertrain & Fluid Systems Conference & Exhibition, Tampa. https://doi.org/10.4271/2004-01-3034
Neer, A., & Koylu, U. O. (2006). Effect of operating conditions on the size, morphology, and concentration of submicrometer particulates emitted from a diesel engine. Combustion Flame, 146, 142–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2006.04.003
O’Connor, J., & Musculus, M. (2013). Post injections for soot reduction in diesel engines: A review of current understanding (SAE Technical Paper No. 01-0917). https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2013-01-0917/
Pan, M., Tong, C., Qian, W., Lu, F., Yin, J., & Huang, H. (2020). The effect of butanol isomers on diesel engine performance, emission and combustion characteristics under different load conditions. Fuel, 277, 118188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118188
Payri, F., Benajes, J., Arregle, J., & Riesco, J. M. (2006). Combustion and exhaust emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine with increased premixed combustion phase by means of injection retarding. Oil & Gas Science and Technology, 61, 247–258. https://doi.org/10.2516/ogst:2006018x
Pico Technology. (2011). 8 channel thermocouple – data logger. https://www.picotech.com/data-logger/tc-08/thermocouple-data-logger
Poorghasemi, K., Ommi, F., Yaghmaei, H., & Namaki, A. (2012). An investigation on effect of high pressure post injection on soot and NO emissions in a DI diesel engine. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, 26, 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-011-1009-4
Qi, D., Leick, M., Liu, Y., & Lee, C. F. F. (2011). Effect of EGR and injection timing on combustion and emission characteristics of split injection strategy DI-diesel engine fueled with biodiesel. Fuel, 90, 1884–1891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.01.016
Ren, Y., Huang, Z., Miao, H., Di, Y., Jiang, D., Zeng, K., Liu, B., & Wang, X. (2008). Combustion and emissions of a DI diesel engine fuelled with diesel-oxygenate blends. Fuel, 87, 2691–2697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2008.02.017
Robbins, C., Hoekman, S. K., Ceniceros, E., & Natarajan, M. (2011). Effects of biodiesel fuels upon criteria emissions (SAE Technical Paper). https://doi.org/10.4271/2011-01-1943
Saravanan, S. (2015). Effect of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on performance and emissions of a constant speed DI diesel engine fueled with pentanol/diesel blends. Fuel, 160, 217–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.07.089
Sayin, C., & Canakci, M. (2009). Effects of injection timing on the engine performance and exhaust emissions of a dual-fuel diesel engine. Energy Conversion and Management, 50, 203–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2008.06.007
Shameer, P. M., Ramesh, K., Sakthivel, R., & Purnachandran, R. (2017). Effects of fuel injection parameters on emission characteristics of diesel engines operating on various biodiesel: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 67, 1267–1281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.117
Shi, L., Xiao, W., Li, M., Lou, L., & Deng, K. (2017a). Research on the effects of injection strategy on LTC combustion based on two-stage fuel injection. Energy, 121, 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.12.128
Shi, X., Liu, B., Zhang, C., Hu, J., & Zeng, Q. (2017b). A study on combined effect of high EGR rate and biodiesel on combustion and emission performance of a diesel engine. Applied Thermal Engineering, 125, 1272–1279.
Stone, R. (1999). Introduction to internal combustion engines (3rd ed.). Macmillan Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-14916-2
Verma, T. N., Nashine, P., Chaurasiya, P. K., Rajak, U., Afzal, A., Kumar, S., Singh, D. V., & Azad, A. K. (2020). The effect of ethanol-methanol-diesel-microalgae blends on performance, combustion and emissions of a direct injection diesel engine. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 42, 100851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2020.100851
Xu, Z., Duan, X., Liu, Y., Deng, B., & Liu, J. (2020). Spray combustion and soot formation characteristics of the acetone-butanol-ethanol/diesel blends under diesel engine-relevant conditions. Fuel, 280, 118483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118483
Yilmaz, N., & Atmanli, A. (2017). Experimental evaluation of a diesel engine running on the blends of diesel and pentanol as a next generation higher alcohol. Fuel, 210, 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.08.051
Yilmaz, N., & Davis, S. M. (2016). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) formation in a diesel engine fueled with diesel, biodiesel and biodiesel/n-butanol blends. Fuel, 181, 729–740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.05.059
Yilmaz, N., & Donaldson, A. B. (2005a). Examination of causes of wetstacking in diesel engines (SAE Technical Paper). https://doi.org/10.4271/2005-01-3138
Yilmaz, N., & Donaldson, A. B. (2007). Evidence of PAH production under lean combustion conditions. Fuel, 86, 2377–2382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2007.02.015
Yilmaz, N., Donaldson, A. B., & Johns, A. (2005b). Some perspectives on alcohol utilization in a compression ignition engine (SAE Technical Paper). https://doi.org/10.4271/2005-01-3135
Yilmaz, N., & Vigil, F. M. (2014). Potential use of a blend of diesel, biodiesel, alcohols and vegetable oil in compression ignition engines. Fuel, 124, 168–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.01.075
Yu, R. C., & Shahed, S. M. (1981). Effects of injection timing and exhaust gas recirculation on emissions from a D.I. diesel engine (SAE Technical Paper). https://doi.org/10.4271/811234
Zhang, Z., & Balasubramanian, R. (2016). Investigation of particulate emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with higher alcohols/biodiesel blends. Applied Energy, 163, 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.10.173
Zheng, Z., Yue, L., Liu, H., Zhu, Y., Zhong, X., & Yao, M. (2015). Effect of two-stage injection on combustion and emissions under high EGR rate on a diesel engine by fueling blends of diesel/gasoline, diesel/n-butanol, diesel/gasoline/n-butanol and pure diesel. Energy Conversion and Management, 90, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.11.011
Zhu, L., Xiao, Y., Cheung, C. S., Guan, C., & Huang, Z. (2016). Combustion, gaseous and particulate emission of a diesel engine fueled with n-pentanol (C5 alcohol) blended with waste cooking oil biodiesel. Applied Thermal Engineering, 102, 73–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.03.145
Abood, M. K., Fayad, M. A., Al Salihi, H. A., & Salbi, H. A. A. (2021). Effect of ZnO nanoparticles deposition on porous silicon solar cell. Materials Today: Proceedings, 42, 2935–2940.
Asad, U., & Zheng, M. (2014). Exhaust gas recirculation for advanced diesel combustion cycles. Applied Energy, 123, 242–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.02.073
Atmanli, A., & Yilmaz, N. (2018). A comparative analysis of n-butanol/diesel and 1-pentanol/diesel blends in a compression ignition engine. Fuel, 234, 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.07.015
Atmanli, A., & Yilmaz, N. (2020). An experimental assessment on semi-low temperature combustion using waste oil biodiesel/C3-C5 alcohol blends in a diesel engine. Fuel, 260, 116357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116357
Banerjee, R., Roy, S., & Bose, P. K. (2015). Hydrogen-EGR synergy as a promising pathway to meet the PM–NOx–BSFC trade-off contingencies of the diesel engine: A comprehensive review. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 40, 12824–12847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.07.098
Bugosh, G. S., Muncrief, R. L., & Harold, M. P. (2011). Emission analysis of alternative diesel fuels using a compression ignition benchtop engine generator. Energy & Fuels, 25, 4704–4712. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef2009452
Chaichan, M. T. (2018). Performance and emission characteristics of CIE using hydrogen, biodiesel, and massive EGR. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 43, 5415–5435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.09.072
Desantes, J. M., Bermúdez, V., Pastor, J. V., & Fuentes, E. (2006). Investigation of the influence of post-injection on diesel exhaust aerosol particle size distributions. Aerosol Science and Technology, 40, 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/02786820500466583
Dhahad, H. A., & Fayad, M. A. (2020). Role of different antioxidants additions to renewable fuels on NOX emissions reduction and smoke number in direct injection diesel engine. Fuel, 279, 118384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118384
Dhahad, H. A., Fayad, M. A., Chaichan, M. T., Jaber, A. A., & Megaritis, T. (2021). Influence of fuel injection timing strategies on performance, combustion, emissions and particulate matter characteristics fueled with rapeseed methyl ester in modern diesel engine. Fuel, 306, 121589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121589
Ekaab, N. S., Hamza, N. H., & Chaichan, M. T. (2019). Performance and emitted pollutants assessment of diesel engine fuelled with biokerosene. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, 13, 100381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2018.100381
Emiroğlu, A. O., & Şen, M. (2018). Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of various alcohol blends in a single cylinder diesel engine. Fuel, 212, 34–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.10.016
Eveleigh, A., Ladommatos, N., Hellier, P., & Jourdan, A. (2015). An investigation into the conversion of specific carbon atoms in oleic acid and methyl oleate to particulate matter in a diesel engine and tube reactor. Fuel, 153, 604–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.03.037
Fayad, M. A. (2019a). Effect of fuel injection strategy on combustion performance and NOx/smoke trade-off under a range of operating conditions for a heavy-duty DI diesel engine. SN Applied Sciences, 1, 1088. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1083-2
Fayad, M. A. (2019b). Effect of renewable fuel and injection strategies on combustion characteristics and gaseous emissions in diesel engines. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 42, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2019.1587091
Fayad, M. A. (2020). Investigating the influence of oxygenated fuel on particulate size distribution and NOX control in a common-rail diesel engine at rated EGR levels. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 19, 100621.
Fayad, M. A. (2021). Investigation of the impact of injection timing and pressure on emissions characteristics and smoke/soot emissions in diesel engine fuelling with soybean fuel. Journal of Engineering Research, 9, 296–307. https://doi.org/10.36909/jer.v9i2.9683
Fayad, M. A., Al-Salihi, H. A., Dhahad, H. A., Mohammed, F. M., & Al-Ogidi, B. R. (2021). Effect of post-injection and alternative fuels on combustion, emissions and soot nanoparticles characteristics in a common-rail direct injection diesel engine. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2021.1970292
Fayad, M. A., & Dhahad, H. A. (2021). Effects of adding aluminum oxide nanoparticles to butanol-diesel blends on performance, particulate matter, and emission characteristics of diesel engine. Fuel, 286, 119363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119363
Fayad, M. A., Fernández-Rodríguez, D., Herreros, J. M., Lapuerta, M., & Tsolakis, A. (2018). Interactions between aftertreatment systems architecture and combustion of oxygenated fuels for improved low temperature catalysts activity. Fuel, 229, 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.05.002
Fayad, M. A., Tsolakis, A., Fernández-Rodríguez, D., Herreros, J. M., Martos, F. J., & Lapuerta, M. (2017). Manipulating modern diesel engine particulate emission characteristics through butanol fuel blending and fuel injection strategies for efficient diesel oxidation catalysts. Applied Energy, 190, 490–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.12.102
Fayad, M. A., Tsolakis, A., & Martos, F. J. (2020). Influence of alternative fuels on combustion and characteristics of particulate matter morphology in a compression ignition diesel engine. Renewable Energy, 149, 962–969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.10.079
Hajbabaei, M., Johnson, K. C., Okamoto, R., & Durbin, T. D. (2013). Evaluation of the impacts of biofuels on emissions for a California certified diesel fuel from heavy-duty engines (SAE Technical Paper). https://doi.org/10.4271/2013-01-1138
Han, J., Bao, H., & Somers, L. M. T. (2021). Experimental investigation of reactivity controlled compression ignition with n-butanol/n-heptane in a heavy-duty diesel engine. Applied Energy, 282, 116164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116164
Heywood, J. B. (1988). Internal combustion engines fundamentals. McGraw-Hill.
How, H., Masjuki, H., Kalam, M., & Teoh, Y. (2018). Influence of injection timing and split injection strategies on performance, emissions, and combustion characteristics of diesel engine fueled with biodiesel blended fuels. Fuel, 213, 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.10.102
Ito, T., Kitamura, T., Ueda, M., Matsumoto, T., Senda, J., & Fujimoto, H. (2003). Effects of flame lift-off and flame temperature on soot formation in oxygenated fuel sprays (SAE Technical Paper). https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-0073/
Kim, H., & Choi, B. (2010). The effect of biodiesel and bioethanol blended diesel fuel on nanoparticles and exhaust emissions from CRDI diesel engine. Renewable Energy, 35, 157–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2009.04.008
Kim, S. H., Fletcher, R. A., & Zachariah, M. R. (2005). Understanding the difference in oxidative properties between flame and diesel soot nanoparticles: The role of metals. Environmental Science & Technology, 39, 4021–4026. https://doi.org/10.1021/es048828z
Koder, A., Schwanzer, P., Zacherl, F., Rabl, H., Mayer, W., Gruber, G., & Dotzer, T. (2018). Combustion and emission characteristics of a 2.2 L common-rail diesel engine fueled with jatropha oil, soybean oil, and diesel fuel at various EGR-rates. Fuel, 228, 23–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.04.147
Koivisto, E., Ladommatos, N., & Gold, M. (2015). Systematic study of the effect of the hydroxyl functional group in alcohol molecules on compression ignition and exhaust gas emissions. Fuel, 153, 650–663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.03.042
Kondo, M., Kimura, S., Hirano, I., Uraki, Y., & Maeda, R. (2000). Development of noise reduction technologies for a small direct-injection diesel engine. JSAE Review, 21, 327–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0389-4304(00)00052-7
Lapuerta, M., Herreros, J. M., Lyons, L. L., García-Contreras, R., & Briceño, Y. (2008). Effect of the alcohol type used in the production of waste cooking oil biodiesel on diesel performance and emissions. Fuel, 87, 3161–3169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2008.05.013
Li, Z., Song, C., Song, J., Lv, G., Dong, S., & Zhao, Z. (2011). Evolution of the nanostructure, fractal dimension and size of in-cylinder soot during diesel combustion process. Combustion and Flame, 158, 1624–1630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2010.12.006
Line, A. G. (1986). Guide engineering analysis of experimental data (Guideline 2).
Liu, B., Cheng, X., Liu, J., & Pu, H. (2018). Investigation into particle emission characteristics of partially premixed combustion fueled with high n-butanol-diesel ratio blends. Fuel, 223, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.02.196
Liu, H., Bi, X., Huo, M., Lee, C. F., & Yao, M. (2012). Soot emissions of various oxygenated biofuels in conventional diesel combustion and low-temperature combustion conditions. Energy & Fuels, 26, 1900–1911. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef201720d
Lyon, R. K., & Cole, J. A. (1990). A reexamination of the RapreNOx process. Combustion and Flame, 82, 435–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-2180(90)90013-H
Menkiel, B., Donkerbroek, A., Uitz, R., Cracknell, R., & Ganippa, L. (2012). Measurement of in-cylinder soot particles and their distribution in an optical HSDI diesel engine using time resolved laser induced incandescence (TR-LII). Combustion and Flame, 159, 2985–2998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2012.03.008
Nabi, N., Shahadat, M. Z., Rahman, S., & Beg, R. A. (2004). Behavior of diesel combustion and exhaust emission with neat diesel fuel and diesel-biodiesel blends [Conference presentation]. Powertrain & Fluid Systems Conference & Exhibition, Tampa. https://doi.org/10.4271/2004-01-3034
Neer, A., & Koylu, U. O. (2006). Effect of operating conditions on the size, morphology, and concentration of submicrometer particulates emitted from a diesel engine. Combustion Flame, 146, 142–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2006.04.003
O’Connor, J., & Musculus, M. (2013). Post injections for soot reduction in diesel engines: A review of current understanding (SAE Technical Paper No. 01-0917). https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2013-01-0917/
Pan, M., Tong, C., Qian, W., Lu, F., Yin, J., & Huang, H. (2020). The effect of butanol isomers on diesel engine performance, emission and combustion characteristics under different load conditions. Fuel, 277, 118188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118188
Payri, F., Benajes, J., Arregle, J., & Riesco, J. M. (2006). Combustion and exhaust emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine with increased premixed combustion phase by means of injection retarding. Oil & Gas Science and Technology, 61, 247–258. https://doi.org/10.2516/ogst:2006018x
Pico Technology. (2011). 8 channel thermocouple – data logger. https://www.picotech.com/data-logger/tc-08/thermocouple-data-logger
Poorghasemi, K., Ommi, F., Yaghmaei, H., & Namaki, A. (2012). An investigation on effect of high pressure post injection on soot and NO emissions in a DI diesel engine. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, 26, 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-011-1009-4
Qi, D., Leick, M., Liu, Y., & Lee, C. F. F. (2011). Effect of EGR and injection timing on combustion and emission characteristics of split injection strategy DI-diesel engine fueled with biodiesel. Fuel, 90, 1884–1891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.01.016
Ren, Y., Huang, Z., Miao, H., Di, Y., Jiang, D., Zeng, K., Liu, B., & Wang, X. (2008). Combustion and emissions of a DI diesel engine fuelled with diesel-oxygenate blends. Fuel, 87, 2691–2697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2008.02.017
Robbins, C., Hoekman, S. K., Ceniceros, E., & Natarajan, M. (2011). Effects of biodiesel fuels upon criteria emissions (SAE Technical Paper). https://doi.org/10.4271/2011-01-1943
Saravanan, S. (2015). Effect of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on performance and emissions of a constant speed DI diesel engine fueled with pentanol/diesel blends. Fuel, 160, 217–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.07.089
Sayin, C., & Canakci, M. (2009). Effects of injection timing on the engine performance and exhaust emissions of a dual-fuel diesel engine. Energy Conversion and Management, 50, 203–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2008.06.007
Shameer, P. M., Ramesh, K., Sakthivel, R., & Purnachandran, R. (2017). Effects of fuel injection parameters on emission characteristics of diesel engines operating on various biodiesel: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 67, 1267–1281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.117
Shi, L., Xiao, W., Li, M., Lou, L., & Deng, K. (2017a). Research on the effects of injection strategy on LTC combustion based on two-stage fuel injection. Energy, 121, 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.12.128
Shi, X., Liu, B., Zhang, C., Hu, J., & Zeng, Q. (2017b). A study on combined effect of high EGR rate and biodiesel on combustion and emission performance of a diesel engine. Applied Thermal Engineering, 125, 1272–1279.
Stone, R. (1999). Introduction to internal combustion engines (3rd ed.). Macmillan Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-14916-2
Verma, T. N., Nashine, P., Chaurasiya, P. K., Rajak, U., Afzal, A., Kumar, S., Singh, D. V., & Azad, A. K. (2020). The effect of ethanol-methanol-diesel-microalgae blends on performance, combustion and emissions of a direct injection diesel engine. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 42, 100851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2020.100851
Xu, Z., Duan, X., Liu, Y., Deng, B., & Liu, J. (2020). Spray combustion and soot formation characteristics of the acetone-butanol-ethanol/diesel blends under diesel engine-relevant conditions. Fuel, 280, 118483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118483
Yilmaz, N., & Atmanli, A. (2017). Experimental evaluation of a diesel engine running on the blends of diesel and pentanol as a next generation higher alcohol. Fuel, 210, 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.08.051
Yilmaz, N., & Davis, S. M. (2016). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) formation in a diesel engine fueled with diesel, biodiesel and biodiesel/n-butanol blends. Fuel, 181, 729–740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.05.059
Yilmaz, N., & Donaldson, A. B. (2005a). Examination of causes of wetstacking in diesel engines (SAE Technical Paper). https://doi.org/10.4271/2005-01-3138
Yilmaz, N., & Donaldson, A. B. (2007). Evidence of PAH production under lean combustion conditions. Fuel, 86, 2377–2382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2007.02.015
Yilmaz, N., Donaldson, A. B., & Johns, A. (2005b). Some perspectives on alcohol utilization in a compression ignition engine (SAE Technical Paper). https://doi.org/10.4271/2005-01-3135
Yilmaz, N., & Vigil, F. M. (2014). Potential use of a blend of diesel, biodiesel, alcohols and vegetable oil in compression ignition engines. Fuel, 124, 168–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.01.075
Yu, R. C., & Shahed, S. M. (1981). Effects of injection timing and exhaust gas recirculation on emissions from a D.I. diesel engine (SAE Technical Paper). https://doi.org/10.4271/811234
Zhang, Z., & Balasubramanian, R. (2016). Investigation of particulate emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with higher alcohols/biodiesel blends. Applied Energy, 163, 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.10.173
Zheng, Z., Yue, L., Liu, H., Zhu, Y., Zhong, X., & Yao, M. (2015). Effect of two-stage injection on combustion and emissions under high EGR rate on a diesel engine by fueling blends of diesel/gasoline, diesel/n-butanol, diesel/gasoline/n-butanol and pure diesel. Energy Conversion and Management, 90, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.11.011
Zhu, L., Xiao, Y., Cheung, C. S., Guan, C., & Huang, Z. (2016). Combustion, gaseous and particulate emission of a diesel engine fueled with n-pentanol (C5 alcohol) blended with waste cooking oil biodiesel. Applied Thermal Engineering, 102, 73–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.03.145