The first flush analysis of stormwater runoff in a humid climate
Abstract
This study focuses on the pollutants from urban runoff to Zarjoob River, which is one of the rivers leading to Anzali International Wetland, which was listed in the Montreux Record in 1993 as a site in need of priority conservation. Storm water runoff from a residential area in Rasht (the largest city on Iran’s Caspian Sea coast) was monitored in this study during thirteen rainfall events, with a total of 58 storm runoff samples collected from 2018 to 2019. In most rainfall events, the mean concentration of total suspended solids (TSS) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were higher than the other pollutants. The event mean concentrations (EMC) of TSS loads ranged from 57.3 mg/L to 682.5 mg/L and from 46.7 mg/L to 590.4 mg/L for COD. The site mean concentrations (SMC) for TSS, COD, total phosphorus (Total P), nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), and total lead (Pb) were 219, 205, 1.91, 20.63, and 0.25 mg/L, respectively. The first flush coefficient (b) was used to evaluate the first flushing of various events. The results of the study confirmed that the first flush occurred in all events, and the average ranking of first flush strength among the pollutants was COD > NO3-N > TP > Pb > TSS. Controlling one-third of the initial runoff volume appeared to be critical for managing the quality of urban rivers in humid regions. The findings of this study can be applied to urban runoff management strategies in cities with similar climatic conditions.
Keyword : event mean concentrations, stormwater, monitoring, pollutants, first flush
How to Cite
Mastouri, R., Pourfallah Koushali, H., & Khaledian, M. R. (2023). The first flush analysis of stormwater runoff in a humid climate. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 31(1), 82–91. https://doi.org/10.3846/jeelm.2023.18064
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Alias, N. B. (2013). First flush behavior in urban residential catchments [PhD thesis]. Queensland University of Technology.
Bach, P. M., McCarthy, T., & Deletic, A. (2010). Redefining the stormwater first flush phenomenon. Water Research, 44(8), 2487–2498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2010.01.022
Baird, F. C., Dybala, T. J., Jennings, M. E., & Okerman, D. J. (1996). Characterization of nonpoint sources and loadings to the corpus Christi bay national estuary program study area (Report CCBNEP-05, Corpus Christi Bay National Estuary Program). Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission, Texas, USA.
Batroney, T., Wadzuk, B. M., & Traver, R. G. (2010). Parking deck’s first flush. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0000167
Behera, P. K., Li, J. Y., & Adams, B. J. (2006). Runoff quality analysis of urban catchments with analytical probabilistic models. Journal of Water Resources Planing and Management, 132(1), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9496(2006)132:1(4)
Bertrand-Karjewiski, J. L., Chebbo, G., & Saget, A. (1998). Distribution of pollutant mass vs volume in stormwater discharges and the first flush phenomenon. Water Resources, 32(8), 2341–2356. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(97)00420-X
Björklund, K., Strömvall, A., & Malmqvist, P. (2011). Screening of organic contaminants in urban snow. Water Science & Technology, 64(1), 206–213. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.642
Bressy, A., Gromaire, M. C., Lorgeoux, C., & Chebbo, G. (2011). Alkylphenols in atmospheric depositions and urban runoff. Water Science & Technology, 63(4), 671–679. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.121
Brezonik, P. L., & Stadelman, T. H. (2002). Analysis and predictive models of storm water runoff volume, loads, and pollutant concentrations from watersheds in the Twin cities metropolitan area, Minnesota, USA. Water Research, 36(7), 1743–1757. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(01)00375-X
Brion, N., Verbanck, M. A., Bauwens, W., Elskens, M., Chen, M., & Servais, P. (2015). Assessing the impacts of wastewater treatment implementation on the water quality of a small urban river over the past 40 years. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 12720–12736. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4493-8
Charbeneau, R. J., & Barrett, M. E. (1998). Evaluation of methods for estimating stormwater pollutant loads. Water Environment Research, 70, 1295–1302. https://doi.org/10.2175/106143098X123679
Chow, M. F., Yusop, Z., & Mohamed, M. (2011). Quality and first flush analysis of stormwater runoff from a tropical commercial catchment. Water Science and Technology, 63(6), 1211–1216. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.360
Chow, M. F., & Yusop, Z. (2014). Sizing first flush pollutant loading of stormwater runoff in tropical urban catchments. Environmental Earth Sciences, 72(10), 4047–4058. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3294-6
Climatemps. (n.d.). https://www.rasht.climatemps.com/precipitation.php
de Jesús-Crespo, R., Newsom, D., King, E. G., & Pringle, C. (2016). Shade tree cover criteria for non-point source pollution control in the Rainforest Alliance coffee certification program: A snapshot assessment of Costa Rica’s Tarrazú coffee region. Ecological Indicators, 66, 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.01.025
Deletic, A. (1998). The first flush load of urban surface runoff. Water Research, 32(8), 2462–2470. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(97)00470-3
Dorchin, A., & Shanas, U. (2010). Assessment of pollution in road runoff using a Bufo viridis biological assay. Environmental Pollution, 158(12), 3626–3633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.08.004
Gasperi, J., Sebastian, C., Ruban, V., Delamain, M., Percot, S., Wiest, L., Mirande, C., Caupos, E., Demare, D., & Kessoo, M. D. K. (2014). Micropollutants in urban stormwater: Occurrence, concentrations, and atmospheric contributions for a wide range of contaminants in three French catchments. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 21(8), 5267–5281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2396-0
Goonetilleke, A., & Thomas, E. C. (2004). Water quality impacts of urbanization: Relating water quality to urban form (Technical Report, Energy & Resource Management Research Program). Centre for Built Environment and Engineering Research, Queensland University of Technology, Australia.
Gotkowska-Płachta, A., Gołaś, I., Korzeniewska, E., Koc, J., Rochwerger, A., & Solarski, K. (2016). Evaluation of the distribution of fecal indicator bacteria in a river system depending on different types of land use in the southern watershed of the Baltic Sea. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23, 4073–4085. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4442-6
Grum, M., Aalderink, R. H., Lijklema, L., & Spliid, H. (1997). The underlying structure of systematic variations in the event mean concentrations of pollutants in urban runoff. Water Science & Technology, 36, 135–140. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.1997.0656
Gunawardena, J., Egodawatta, P., Ayoko, G. A., & Goonetilleke, A. (2013). Atmospheric deposition as a source of heavy metals in urban stormwater. Atmospheric Environment, 68, 235–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.11.062
Gupta, K., & Saul, A. J. (1996). Specific relationships for the first flush load in combined sewer flows. Water Research, 30(5), 1244–1252. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(95)00282-0
He, J., Valeo, C., Chu, A., & Neumann, N. F. (2010). Characterizing physicochemical quality of storm-water runoff from an urban area in Calgary, Alberta. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 136(11), 1206–1217. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000267
Huber, W. C. (1993). Contaminant transport in surface water. In Handbook of hydrology. McGraw Hill.
Kang, J.-H., Kayhanian, M., & Stenstrom, M. K. (2008). Predicting the existence of stormwater first flush from the time of concentration. Water Research, 42(1), 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2007.07.001
Kaushal, S. S., & Belt, K. T. (2012). The urban watershed continuum: Evolving spatial and temporal dimensions. Urban Ecosystems, 15, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-012-0226-7
Kim, G., Yur, J., & Kim, J. (2012). Diffuse pollution loading from urban stormwater runoff in Deajeon city, Korea. Journal of Environmental Management, 85(1), 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.07.009
Lee, B. C., Matsui, S., Shimizu, Y., & Matsuda, T. (2005). Characterizations of the first flush in storm water runoff from an urban roadway. Environmental Technology, 26(7), 773–782. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593332608618508
Lee, J. H., Bang, K. W., Ketchum, L. H., Choe, J. S., & Yu, M. J. (2002). First flush analysis of urban storm runoff. Science of the Total Environment, 293(1), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00006-2
Lundy, L., Ellis, J. B., & Revitt, D. M. (2012). Risk prioritization of stormwater pollutant sources. Water Research, 46(20), 6589–6600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.10.039
McCarthy, D. T. (2009). A traditional first flush assessment of E. coli in urban stormwater runoff. Water Science & Technology, 60(11), 2749–2757. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2009.374
McConnell, R. G., Araj, E. G., & Jones, D. T. (1999). Developing non-point source water quality level of service for Hillsborough County, Florida. In Proceedings of 6th Biennial Stormwater Research and Watershed Management Conference (pp. 145–154), Southwest Florida Water Management District, Brooksville, Florida, USA.
Markiewicz, A., Björklund, K., Eriksson, E., Kalmykova, Y., Strömvall, A., & Siopi, A. (2017). Emissions of organic pollutants from traffic and roads: Priority pollutants selection and substance flow analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 580, 1162–1174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.074
McLeod, M. S., Kells, A. J., & Putz, J. G. (2006). Urban runoff quality characterization and load estimation in Saskatoon, Canada. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 132(11), 1470–1482. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2006)132:11(1470)
Müller, A., Österlund, H., Nordqvist, K., Marsalek, J., & Viklander, M. (2019). Building surface materials as sources of micropollutants in building runoff: A pilot study. Science of the Total Environment, 680, 190–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.088
Nazahiyah, R. (2005). Modeling of non-point source pollution from residential and commercial catchments in Skudai, Johor [Master thesis, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia]. Malaysia.
Novotny, V., & Olem, H. (1994). Water quality: Prevention, identification, and management of diffuse pollution. Van Nostrand Reinhold Publishers.
Pearson, L. G., Thornton, R. C., Saul, A. J., & Howard, K. (1986). An introductory analysis of the factors affecting the concentration of pollutants in the first foul flush of a combined storm sewer system. In Proceedings International Conference on Urban Stormwater Quality and Effects Upon Receiving Waters (pp. 93–102), Wageningen.
Petrucci, G., Gromaire, M. C., Shorshani, M. F., & Chebbo, G. (2014). Nonpoint source pollution of urban stormwater runoff: A methodology for source analysis. Environmental Science Pollution Research, 21(17), 10225–10242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2845-4
Sansalone, J. J., & Cristina, C. M. (2004). First flush concepts for suspended and dissolved solids in small impervious watersheds. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 130(11), 1301–1314. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2004)130:11(1301)
Shamseldin, A. Y. (2011). Stormwater first flush analysis in the Auckland Region. Auckland Council. https://books.google.com/books?id=DQeDtgEACAAJ
Soller, J., Stephenson, J., Olivier, K., Downing, J., & Olivier, A. W. (2005). Evaluation of seasonal scale first flush pollutant loading and implications for urban runoff management. Journal of Environmental Management, 76(4), 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2004.12.007
Stenstrom, M., & Kayhanian, M. (2005). First flush phenomenon characterization. http://www.seas.ucla.edu/stenstro/r/r51
Taebi, A., & Droste, R. L. (2004). First flush pollution load of urban stormwater runoff. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science, 3(4), 301–309. https://doi.org/10.1139/s04-018
Thorpe, A., & Harrison, R. M. (2008). Sources and properties of non-exhaust particulatematter from road traffic: A review. Science of the Total Environment, 400(1–3), 270–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.06.007
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1998). Methods for identifying and evaluating the nature and extent of nonpoint sources of pollutant (EPA-430/9-73/014). Washington, D.C.
Yi, Q., Li, H., Lee, J. W., & Kim, Y. (2015). Development of EMC-based empirical model for estimating spatial distribution of pollutant loads and its application in rural areas of Korea. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 35, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2015.01.024
Zeng, J., Huang, G., Luo, H., Mai, Y., & Wu, H. (2019). First flush of non-point source pollution and hydrological effects of LID in a Guangzhou community. Scientific Reports, 9, 13865. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-50467-8
Zgheib, S., Moilleron, R., & Chebbo, G. (2012). Priority pollutants in urban stormwater: Part 1 – case of separate storm sewers. Water Research, 46(20), 6683–6692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.12.012
Zushi, Y., & Masunaga, S. (2009). First-flush loads of per fluorinated compounds in stormwater runoff from Hayabuchi River basin, Japan served by separated sewerage system. Chemosphere, 76(6), 833–840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.04.004
Bach, P. M., McCarthy, T., & Deletic, A. (2010). Redefining the stormwater first flush phenomenon. Water Research, 44(8), 2487–2498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2010.01.022
Baird, F. C., Dybala, T. J., Jennings, M. E., & Okerman, D. J. (1996). Characterization of nonpoint sources and loadings to the corpus Christi bay national estuary program study area (Report CCBNEP-05, Corpus Christi Bay National Estuary Program). Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission, Texas, USA.
Batroney, T., Wadzuk, B. M., & Traver, R. G. (2010). Parking deck’s first flush. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0000167
Behera, P. K., Li, J. Y., & Adams, B. J. (2006). Runoff quality analysis of urban catchments with analytical probabilistic models. Journal of Water Resources Planing and Management, 132(1), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9496(2006)132:1(4)
Bertrand-Karjewiski, J. L., Chebbo, G., & Saget, A. (1998). Distribution of pollutant mass vs volume in stormwater discharges and the first flush phenomenon. Water Resources, 32(8), 2341–2356. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(97)00420-X
Björklund, K., Strömvall, A., & Malmqvist, P. (2011). Screening of organic contaminants in urban snow. Water Science & Technology, 64(1), 206–213. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.642
Bressy, A., Gromaire, M. C., Lorgeoux, C., & Chebbo, G. (2011). Alkylphenols in atmospheric depositions and urban runoff. Water Science & Technology, 63(4), 671–679. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.121
Brezonik, P. L., & Stadelman, T. H. (2002). Analysis and predictive models of storm water runoff volume, loads, and pollutant concentrations from watersheds in the Twin cities metropolitan area, Minnesota, USA. Water Research, 36(7), 1743–1757. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(01)00375-X
Brion, N., Verbanck, M. A., Bauwens, W., Elskens, M., Chen, M., & Servais, P. (2015). Assessing the impacts of wastewater treatment implementation on the water quality of a small urban river over the past 40 years. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 12720–12736. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4493-8
Charbeneau, R. J., & Barrett, M. E. (1998). Evaluation of methods for estimating stormwater pollutant loads. Water Environment Research, 70, 1295–1302. https://doi.org/10.2175/106143098X123679
Chow, M. F., Yusop, Z., & Mohamed, M. (2011). Quality and first flush analysis of stormwater runoff from a tropical commercial catchment. Water Science and Technology, 63(6), 1211–1216. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.360
Chow, M. F., & Yusop, Z. (2014). Sizing first flush pollutant loading of stormwater runoff in tropical urban catchments. Environmental Earth Sciences, 72(10), 4047–4058. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3294-6
Climatemps. (n.d.). https://www.rasht.climatemps.com/precipitation.php
de Jesús-Crespo, R., Newsom, D., King, E. G., & Pringle, C. (2016). Shade tree cover criteria for non-point source pollution control in the Rainforest Alliance coffee certification program: A snapshot assessment of Costa Rica’s Tarrazú coffee region. Ecological Indicators, 66, 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.01.025
Deletic, A. (1998). The first flush load of urban surface runoff. Water Research, 32(8), 2462–2470. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(97)00470-3
Dorchin, A., & Shanas, U. (2010). Assessment of pollution in road runoff using a Bufo viridis biological assay. Environmental Pollution, 158(12), 3626–3633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.08.004
Gasperi, J., Sebastian, C., Ruban, V., Delamain, M., Percot, S., Wiest, L., Mirande, C., Caupos, E., Demare, D., & Kessoo, M. D. K. (2014). Micropollutants in urban stormwater: Occurrence, concentrations, and atmospheric contributions for a wide range of contaminants in three French catchments. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 21(8), 5267–5281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2396-0
Goonetilleke, A., & Thomas, E. C. (2004). Water quality impacts of urbanization: Relating water quality to urban form (Technical Report, Energy & Resource Management Research Program). Centre for Built Environment and Engineering Research, Queensland University of Technology, Australia.
Gotkowska-Płachta, A., Gołaś, I., Korzeniewska, E., Koc, J., Rochwerger, A., & Solarski, K. (2016). Evaluation of the distribution of fecal indicator bacteria in a river system depending on different types of land use in the southern watershed of the Baltic Sea. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23, 4073–4085. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4442-6
Grum, M., Aalderink, R. H., Lijklema, L., & Spliid, H. (1997). The underlying structure of systematic variations in the event mean concentrations of pollutants in urban runoff. Water Science & Technology, 36, 135–140. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.1997.0656
Gunawardena, J., Egodawatta, P., Ayoko, G. A., & Goonetilleke, A. (2013). Atmospheric deposition as a source of heavy metals in urban stormwater. Atmospheric Environment, 68, 235–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.11.062
Gupta, K., & Saul, A. J. (1996). Specific relationships for the first flush load in combined sewer flows. Water Research, 30(5), 1244–1252. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(95)00282-0
He, J., Valeo, C., Chu, A., & Neumann, N. F. (2010). Characterizing physicochemical quality of storm-water runoff from an urban area in Calgary, Alberta. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 136(11), 1206–1217. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000267
Huber, W. C. (1993). Contaminant transport in surface water. In Handbook of hydrology. McGraw Hill.
Kang, J.-H., Kayhanian, M., & Stenstrom, M. K. (2008). Predicting the existence of stormwater first flush from the time of concentration. Water Research, 42(1), 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2007.07.001
Kaushal, S. S., & Belt, K. T. (2012). The urban watershed continuum: Evolving spatial and temporal dimensions. Urban Ecosystems, 15, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-012-0226-7
Kim, G., Yur, J., & Kim, J. (2012). Diffuse pollution loading from urban stormwater runoff in Deajeon city, Korea. Journal of Environmental Management, 85(1), 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.07.009
Lee, B. C., Matsui, S., Shimizu, Y., & Matsuda, T. (2005). Characterizations of the first flush in storm water runoff from an urban roadway. Environmental Technology, 26(7), 773–782. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593332608618508
Lee, J. H., Bang, K. W., Ketchum, L. H., Choe, J. S., & Yu, M. J. (2002). First flush analysis of urban storm runoff. Science of the Total Environment, 293(1), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00006-2
Lundy, L., Ellis, J. B., & Revitt, D. M. (2012). Risk prioritization of stormwater pollutant sources. Water Research, 46(20), 6589–6600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.10.039
McCarthy, D. T. (2009). A traditional first flush assessment of E. coli in urban stormwater runoff. Water Science & Technology, 60(11), 2749–2757. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2009.374
McConnell, R. G., Araj, E. G., & Jones, D. T. (1999). Developing non-point source water quality level of service for Hillsborough County, Florida. In Proceedings of 6th Biennial Stormwater Research and Watershed Management Conference (pp. 145–154), Southwest Florida Water Management District, Brooksville, Florida, USA.
Markiewicz, A., Björklund, K., Eriksson, E., Kalmykova, Y., Strömvall, A., & Siopi, A. (2017). Emissions of organic pollutants from traffic and roads: Priority pollutants selection and substance flow analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 580, 1162–1174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.074
McLeod, M. S., Kells, A. J., & Putz, J. G. (2006). Urban runoff quality characterization and load estimation in Saskatoon, Canada. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 132(11), 1470–1482. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2006)132:11(1470)
Müller, A., Österlund, H., Nordqvist, K., Marsalek, J., & Viklander, M. (2019). Building surface materials as sources of micropollutants in building runoff: A pilot study. Science of the Total Environment, 680, 190–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.088
Nazahiyah, R. (2005). Modeling of non-point source pollution from residential and commercial catchments in Skudai, Johor [Master thesis, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia]. Malaysia.
Novotny, V., & Olem, H. (1994). Water quality: Prevention, identification, and management of diffuse pollution. Van Nostrand Reinhold Publishers.
Pearson, L. G., Thornton, R. C., Saul, A. J., & Howard, K. (1986). An introductory analysis of the factors affecting the concentration of pollutants in the first foul flush of a combined storm sewer system. In Proceedings International Conference on Urban Stormwater Quality and Effects Upon Receiving Waters (pp. 93–102), Wageningen.
Petrucci, G., Gromaire, M. C., Shorshani, M. F., & Chebbo, G. (2014). Nonpoint source pollution of urban stormwater runoff: A methodology for source analysis. Environmental Science Pollution Research, 21(17), 10225–10242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2845-4
Sansalone, J. J., & Cristina, C. M. (2004). First flush concepts for suspended and dissolved solids in small impervious watersheds. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 130(11), 1301–1314. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2004)130:11(1301)
Shamseldin, A. Y. (2011). Stormwater first flush analysis in the Auckland Region. Auckland Council. https://books.google.com/books?id=DQeDtgEACAAJ
Soller, J., Stephenson, J., Olivier, K., Downing, J., & Olivier, A. W. (2005). Evaluation of seasonal scale first flush pollutant loading and implications for urban runoff management. Journal of Environmental Management, 76(4), 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2004.12.007
Stenstrom, M., & Kayhanian, M. (2005). First flush phenomenon characterization. http://www.seas.ucla.edu/stenstro/r/r51
Taebi, A., & Droste, R. L. (2004). First flush pollution load of urban stormwater runoff. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science, 3(4), 301–309. https://doi.org/10.1139/s04-018
Thorpe, A., & Harrison, R. M. (2008). Sources and properties of non-exhaust particulatematter from road traffic: A review. Science of the Total Environment, 400(1–3), 270–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.06.007
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1998). Methods for identifying and evaluating the nature and extent of nonpoint sources of pollutant (EPA-430/9-73/014). Washington, D.C.
Yi, Q., Li, H., Lee, J. W., & Kim, Y. (2015). Development of EMC-based empirical model for estimating spatial distribution of pollutant loads and its application in rural areas of Korea. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 35, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2015.01.024
Zeng, J., Huang, G., Luo, H., Mai, Y., & Wu, H. (2019). First flush of non-point source pollution and hydrological effects of LID in a Guangzhou community. Scientific Reports, 9, 13865. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-50467-8
Zgheib, S., Moilleron, R., & Chebbo, G. (2012). Priority pollutants in urban stormwater: Part 1 – case of separate storm sewers. Water Research, 46(20), 6683–6692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.12.012
Zushi, Y., & Masunaga, S. (2009). First-flush loads of per fluorinated compounds in stormwater runoff from Hayabuchi River basin, Japan served by separated sewerage system. Chemosphere, 76(6), 833–840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.04.004